Uzbekistan
Russia conquered Uzbekistan in the late 19th century. Stiff resistance to the Red Army after World War I was eventually suppressed and a socialist republic set up in 1925. During the Soviet era, intensive production of "white gold" (cotton) and grain led to overuse of agrochemicals and the depletion of water supplies, which have left the land poisoned and the Aral Sea and certain rivers half dry. Independent since 1991, the country seeks to gradually lessen its dependence on agriculture while developing its mineral and petroleum reserves. Current concerns include terrorism by Islamic militant groups from Tajikistan and Afghanistan, a non-convertible currency, and the curtailment of human rights and democratization.
Travelers should be aware that since the emergence in 2000 of radical Islamic groups reportedly based in Tajikistan and Afghanistan, Uzbekistan has been facing security problems. In late March 2004 suspected Islamic militants launched suicide bomb attacks in Teshkent, leading to clashes between the militants and police that resulted in at least 40 deaths. The groups are said to be aiming to overthrow the secular government and set up an Islamic state. This has made the Uzbek leadership the most zealous advocate of tougher security measures in the region. Travel to remote regions, particularly near the Tajik and Afghan borders should be avoided, particularly in light of Uzbekistan's strong support for the United States and her allies in the campaign to oust Islamic extremists from Afghanistan in October 2001.
President Islam Abduganiyevich Karimov has dominated the leadership since 1989 when he rose to be Communist Party leader in then Soviet Uzbekistan. The following year he became Uzbek president and continued in the post after independence. A referendum held in 1995 extended his term until 2000 when he won the presidential elections unopposed. In 2002 he again managed to secure support in a referendum for an extension of the presidential term - from five to seven years. This measure comes into effect after the 2005 presidential vote.
In 2003 parliament passed a law granting him immunity from prosecution for his activities as president should he cease to hold the post. Although Mr Karimov denied that he had any plans to do so, some analysts were inclined to see this as possible evidence to the contrary.
He has tried to expand the country's regional standing while retaining tight domestic political control and repressing political and religious opposition. Some analysts agree that the threat of Islamic militancy is very real, but others accuse him of exaggerating it to justify his own authoritarian style and suggest that this could backfire.
Following the 11 September attacks on the US, President Karimov won favor with Washington by allowing its forces a base in Uzbekistan affording ready access across the Afghan border. US aid has increased. Human rights observers have voiced mounting fears that it has become harder to focus international attention on the many reported cases of abuse and torture.
The rigidity of political control is mirrored in the tightly centralized planning of the economy. Economic reform has been painfully slow to materialize. A World Bank report in the summer of 2003 found economic growth and living standards to be amongst the lowest in the former Soviet Union.
The government continues to have a dominating influence on the Uzbek economy. Uzbekistan tightened currency and export controls in its largely-closed economy following the Asian and Russian financial crises, further deterring foreign investors already shying away from the country because of a poor investment climate and Uzbekistan's non-convertible currency, the som.
Privatization of state-owned industries is moving slowly, on a case-by-case basis. Uzbekistan has announced that it intends to privatize 49% of Uzbekneftegaz, the state holding company set up in 1998 to unify the country's oil and gas industries by 2003.
